Built to Exclude

How masculinity contest culture undermines working women by eroding their fit, diminishing their engagement and increasing their attrition.

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Workplaces have historically been shaped by masculine norms that value dominance, competition, and overwork.

When these norms become excessive, they create a culture of exclusion known as masculinity contest culture.

In this culture, employees are pressured to conform to masculine ideals—aggressiveness, dominance, and hyper-competitiveness—that are not only valued and rewarded but are required to succeed.

In these organizations, femininity is perceived as the antithesis of hegemonic masculinity and displays of stereotypically feminine behaviors are rejected and seen as a sign of weakness.

For women, the consequences of the masculinity contest culture can include bullying and harassment, burnout, turnover intentions, and reduced engagement.

What isn’t known is the extent of the negative impact of the masculinity contest culture.

To find out researchers conducted a survey of working women across specific time points.

“We tested whether the culture predicted intentions to leave the organization and their enthusiasm for their work, directly and indirectly, through women’s reduced perceptions of person-organization fit,” write researchers, in the journal Sex Roles.

They found that masculinity contest culture undermines women’s sense of fit, which in turn reduces their motivation and engagement in the work and increases their turnover intentions.

“When dominance and overwork are valorized, everyone—but especially women—are at risk of alienation,” write the researchers.

At a practical level, the findings highlight the need for organizations to challenge competitive masculine norms and cultivate environments where women’s identities are respected, valued, and included.

“Addressing these patterns requires policy change and a cultural reimagining of what constitutes competence and success,” they write.

“Building organizations and societies that prioritize connection, care, and well-being over competition and control is necessary for both women’s inclusion and for collective well-being and sustainability.”

The full article can be downloaded here or requested through your school or library using this citation: Miller, M.J., Follmer, K.B. Built to Exclude: How Masculinity Contest Culture Undermines Women’s Fit, Engagement, and Retention. Sex Roles 92, 10 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-026-01644-3

D.L. Lee is the author of SISTERLY LOVE, a novel about two sisters who grow apart.

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